Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS[2] (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/;[5] 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist,[6] best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.[7] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[8] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,[9] and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.[10]
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[11][12] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[13][14] Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.[15][16]
Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ's College) encouraged his passion for natural science.[17] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's conception of gradual geological change, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.[18]
Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[19] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[20] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[21] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[13] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[22][23]
В 1260 году Никколо, отец Марко, вместе со своим братом Маттео отправились в Крым (в Судак), где у их третьего брата, которого также звали Марко, был свой торговый дом. Далее они двинулись по тому же маршруту, по которому в 1253 году Гийом де Рубрук. Проведя год в Сарай-Бату, братья двинулись дальше в Бухару. В связи с опасностью военных действий, которые вёл Берке (брат Батыя) в этом регионе, братья вынуждены были отложить возвращение домой. Пробыв в Бухаре три года и не имея возможности вернуться домой, они присоединились к персидскому каравану, который послал ильхан Хулагу в Ханбалык (современный Пекин) своему брату, монгольскому хану Хубилаю, который к тому времени практически завершил разгром китайской империи Сун и вскоре стал единоличным правителем Монгольской империи и китайских земель
Зимой 1266 года братья достигли Пекина и были приняты Хубилаем, который, по словам братьев, дал им золотую пайцзу для свободной дороги назад и попросил их передать послание папе римскому с прислать ему масла с гробницы Христа в Иерусалиме и проповедников христианства. Вместе с братьями отправился и монгольский посол в Ватикан, однако, в дороге он заболел и отстал. В дороге Никколо узнал о смерти своей жены и о рождении сына, появившегося на свет через несколько дней после его отъезда, в 1254 году, и названного Марко. Прибыв в Венецию в 1269 году, братья обнаружили, что Папа Климент IV умер, а новый так и не был назначен. Желая поскорее выполнить поручение, они решили не дожидаться назначения нового папы, и в 1271 году отправились в Иерусалим, взяв с собой Марко.
