In the 19th century, the methods of natural sciences were adapted to explain human behaviours such as crime. The underlying premise was that if people were ‘born’ criminal they could be identified, labelled and managed. The key thinker behind this project was Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician and psychiatrist. In 1876, he published On Criminal Man in which he posited that criminals represent a particular type, distinct from non-criminals. In general terms, he argued that criminals represent a form of degeneracy that was manifested in characteristics reflective of earlier forms of evolution. He drew up a typology of male criminals who he clustered into four types:

Born criminals with atavistic characteristics. Lombroso proposed that the “born criminal” could be distinguished by inherited physical stigmata, such as large jaws, shifty eyes and fleshy lips.
Insane criminals, including idiots, imbeciles and paranoiacs, epileptics and alcoholics.
Occasional criminals or criminaloids, whose crimes he explained as opportunistic.
Criminals of passion who commit crimes because of anger, love or honour.
His studies of female criminality concluded female criminals were rare because they had evolved less than men.

Lombroso’s legacy has been profound for knowledge, culture and for criminology. Ideas of biology as stigma led to racism, prejudice, ill-treatment and eugenics. Lombroso’s belief that the stigmatised should be sterilised so they couldn’t produce more inferior specimens also led to eugenics. Yet Lombroso’s ideas still resound today, with societies condemning many black people to be poor and criminal because of their genes rather than blaming for instance, the 250 years of slavery, colonialism and racism they have suffered.

Despite this legacy, his methods were part of a turn to positivistic research which in criminology remains deeply influential today. The positivist approach to crime looks for measurable characteristics of crime and criminals: biological, psychological, environmental or sociological, which can then be managed to alleviate the problem of crime. Importantly, these characteristics are seen as indicative facts of why offenders or their behaviours are not ‘normal’. The effort then is to rectify the abnormal, if possible, through treatment, rehabilitation, punishment, deterrence, education or social initiative. If this is not possible then the offender is removed to some kind of prison or controlled in some other way.
Answer the questions:
1. When were the methods of natural sciences adapted to explain human behaviours such as crime?
2. What was Cesare Lombroso?
3. Who drew up a typology of male criminals?
4. Why did Cesare Lombroso conclude that female criminals were rare?
5. Why does his method remain deeply influential today?